The 认知的 革命
An Animal of No 显著特性
ABOUT 13.5 BILLION YEARS AGO, 物质, 能量, time and space came into being in what is known as the Big Bang. The story of these 基本的 features of our universe is called physics.
About 300,000 years after their 出现, 物质 and 能量 started to 联合 into complex structures, called 原子s, which then combined into 分子s. The story of atoms, molecules and their 相互影响s is called chemistry.
About 3.8 billion years ago, on a planet called Earth, 某些 molecules combined to 形成 特别ly large and 错综复杂的 structures called 有机体s. The story of organisms is called 生物学.
About 70,000 years ago, organisms belonging to the 物种s 人属 智人 started to form even more 复杂的 structures called cultures. The 随后的 development of these human cultures is called history.
Three important 革命s shaped the course of history: the 认知的 Revolution 促使开始ed history about 70,000 years ago. The 农业的 Revolution 加速ed it up about 12,000 years ago. The 科学的 Revolution, which got under way only 500 years ago, may well end history and start something 完全ly different. This book tells the story of how these three revolutions have 影响ed humans and their 同类的 organisms.
There were humans long before there was history. Animals much like modern humans first 出现ed about 2.5 million years ago. But for 数不尽的 generations they did not 突出 from the 各式各样的 other 生物s with which they 共享ed their 栖息地.
On a 徒步旅行 in East Africa 2 million years ago, you might well have 遇到ed a 熟悉的 组 of human 角色s: 焦虑的 mothers 抱起 their babies and 抓回s of 无忧无虑的 children playing in the 泥地; 有脾气的 youths 愤怒 against the 规定 of society and 不再热心的 elders who just wanted to be 离开 in 平静; 捶胸顿足的 大男子主义 trying to 留印象 the local beauty and 明智的 old 女家长 who had already seen it all. These 古代的 humans loved, played, formed close friendships and 争夺ed for 地位 and power – but so did 黑猩猩s, 狒狒s and 大象s. There was nothing special about them. Nobody, 至少 of all humans themselves, had any 略知 that their 后代s would one day walk on the moon, 分裂 the 原子, 探究 the 基因的 code and write history books. The most important thing to know about 史前的 humans is that they were 微不足道的 animals with no more 影响 on their environment than 大猩猩s, 萤火虫s or 水母.
生物学家 classify organisms into 物种s. Animals are said to belong to the same 物种s if they tend to 交配 with each other, giving birth to 可繁殖的 后代. Horses and 驴s have a recent common 祖先 and share many physical 特征. But they show little 性行为的 interest in one another. They will 交配 if 被诱导 to do so – but their offspring, called 骡子s, are 不能生育的. 基因突变s in 驴 DNA can therefore never cross over to horses, 反之亦然. The two types of animals are 所以ly considered two 有区别的 species, moving along 分离的 演化的 paths. By contrast, a 斗牛狗 and a 西班牙猎狗 may look very different, but they are 成员s of the same species, sharing the same DNA 池. They will happily mate and their 小狗s will grow up to 成双 off with other dogs and 繁育 more puppies.
Species that 演化ed from a common ancestor are 聚ed together under the 标记ing ‘genus’ (复数的 genera). 狮子s, 老虎s, 豹s and 美洲豹s are different 种s within the 属 Panthera. Biologists 命名 organisms with a two-part 拉丁文 name, 属 followed by 种. 狮子, for example, are called Panthera leo, the 种 狮 of the 属 豹. 大概ly, everyone reading this book is a Homo sapiens – the 种 sapiens (wise) of the 属 Homo (man).
Genera in their turn are grouped into 科, such as the 猫科 (lions, cheetahs, house cats), the 狗科 (wolves, foxes, jackals) and the 象科 (elephants, mammoths, mastodons). All 成员 of a family trace their 血统 back to a founding 雌性祖先 or 雄性祖先. All cats, for example, from the smallest house 小猫 to the most 凶猛的 lion, share a common 猫科 ancestor who 活在ed about 25 million years ago.
Homo sapiens, too, belongs to a 科. This 平庸的 fact used to be one of history’s most 严密ly 保守的 secrets. Homo sapiens long 倾向于ed to view itself as set 不同 from animals, an 孤儿 丧失ed of family, lacking 兄弟姐妹 or 堂兄弟姐妹, and most importantly, without parents. But that’s just not the case. Like it or not, we are members of a large and particularly 嘈杂的 family called the great 猿. Our closest living 亲戚s include 黑猩猩s, 大猩猩s and orang-utans. The 黑猩猩s are the closest. Just 6 million years ago, a single 雌性的 ape had two daughters. One became the ancestor of all 黑猩猩s, the other is our own grandmother.
An Animal of No Significance
ABOUT 13.5 BILLION YEARS AGO, MATTER, energy, time and space came into being in what is known as the Big Bang. The story of these fundamental features of our universe is called physics.
About 300,000 years after their appearance, matter and energy started to coalesce into complex structures, called atoms, which then combined into molecules. The story of atoms, molecules and their interactions is called chemistry.
About 3.8 billion years ago, on a planet called Earth, certain molecules combined to form particularly large and intricate structures called organisms. The story of organisms is called biology.
About 70,000 years ago, organisms belonging to the species Homo sapiens started to form even more elaborate structures called cultures. The subsequent development of these human cultures is called history.
Three important revolutions shaped the course of history: the Cognitive Revolution kick-started history about 70,000 years ago. The Agricultural Revolution sped it up about 12,000 years ago. The Scientific Revolution, which got under way only 500 years ago, may well end history and start something completely different. This book tells the story of how these three revolutions have affected humans and their fellow organisms.
There were humans long before there was history. Animals much like modern humans first appeared about 2.5 million years ago. But for countless generations they did not stand out from the myriad other organisms with which they shared their habitats.
On a hike in East Africa 2 million years ago, you might well have encountered a familiar cast of human characters: anxious mothers cuddling their babies and clutches of carefree children playing in the mud; temperamental youths chafing against the dictates of society and weary elders who just wanted to be left in peace; chest-thumping machos trying to impress the local beauty and wise old matriarchs who had already seen it all. These archaic humans loved, played, formed close friendships and competed for status and power – but so did chimpanzees, baboons and elephants. There was nothing special about them. Nobody, least of all humans themselves, had any inkling that their descendants would one day walk on the moon, split the atom, fathom the genetic code and write history books. The most important thing to know about prehistoric humans is that they were insignificant animals with no more impact on their environment than gorillas, fireflies or jellyfish.
Biologists classify organisms into species. Animals are said to belong to the same species if they tend to mate with each other, giving birth to fertile offspring. Horses and donkeys have a recent common ancestor and share many physical traits. But they show little sexual interest in one another. They will mate if induced to do so – but their offspring, called mules, are sterile. Mutations in donkey DNA can therefore never cross over to horses, or vice versa. The two types of animals are consequently considered two distinct species, moving along separate evolutionary paths. By contrast, a bulldog and a spaniel may look very different, but they are members of the same species, sharing the same DNA pool. They will happily mate and their puppies will grow up to pair off with other dogs and produce more puppies.
Species that evolved from a common ancestor are bunched together under the heading ‘genus’ (plural genera). Lions, tigers, leopards and jaguars are different species within the genus Panthera. Biologists label organisms with a two-part Latin name, genus followed by species. Lions, for example, are called Panthera leo, the species leo of the genus Panthera. Presumably, everyone reading this book is a Homo sapiens – the species sapiens (wise) of the genus Homo (man).
Genera in their turn are grouped into families, such as the cats (lions, cheetahs, house cats), the dogs (wolves, foxes, jackals) and the elephants (elephants, mammoths, mastodons). All members of a family trace their lineage back to a founding matriarch or patriarch. All cats, for example, from the smallest house kitten to the most ferocious lion, share a common feline ancestor who lived about 25 million years ago.
Homo sapiens, too, belongs to a family. This banal fact used to be one of history’s most closely guarded secrets. Homo sapiens long preferred to view itself as set apart from animals, an orphan bereft of family, lacking siblings or cousins, and most importantly, without parents. But that’s just not the case. Like it or not, we are members of a large and particularly noisy family called the great apes. Our closest living relatives include chimpanzees, gorillas and orang-utans. The chimpanzees are the closest. Just 6 million years ago, a single female ape had two daughters. One became the ancestor of all chimpanzees, the other is our own grandmother.